桁架形体系英语怎么说及英文翻译

① truss架 桁架有什么区别

Truss架也称为桁架。

Truss架：由的平面或空间结构架，一般为方柱型，多用于扬声器吊挂、户外临时展棚和背景的骨架搭建。又称为桁架。

桁架（truss）:常用的有钢桁架、钢筋混凝土桁架、预应力混凝土桁架、木桁架、钢与木组合桁架、钢与混凝土组合桁架。桁架按外形分有三角形桁架、梯形桁架、多边形桁架、平行弦桁架，及空腹桁架。在选择桁架形式时，应综合考虑桁架的用途、材料、支承方式和施工条件，在满足使用要求的前提下，力求制造和安装所用的材料和劳动量为最小。

② 鍦熸湪宸ョ▼甯哥敤鏈璇鑻辫缈昏瘧鍙婂悕璇嶈В閲(鍥)

绗鍥涜妭 妗ャ佹兜娲炲拰闅ч亾鏈璇
1. 妗 bridge
涓哄叕璺銆侀搧璺銆佸煄甯傞亾璺銆佺＄嚎銆佽屼汉绛夎法瓒婃渤娴併佸北璋枫侀亾璺绛夊ぉ鐒舵垨浜哄伐闅滅嶈屽缓閫犵殑鏋剁┖寤虹瓚鐗┿
2. 绠鏀姊佹ˉ simple supported girder bridge
浠ョ畝鏀姊佷綔涓烘ˉ璺ㄧ粨鏋勭殑涓昏佹壙閲嶆瀯浠剁殑姊佸紡妗ャ
3. 杩炵画姊佹ˉ continuous girder bridge
浠ユ垚鍒楃殑杩炵画姊佷綔涓烘ˉ璺ㄧ粨鏋勪富瑕佹壙閲嶆瀯浠剁殑姊佸紡妗ャ
4. 鎮鑷傛佹ˉ cantilever girder bridge
浠ユ偓鑷備綔涓烘ˉ璺ㄧ粨鏋勪富瑕佹壙閲嶆瀯浠剁殑姊佸紡妗ャ
5. 鏂滄媺锛堟枩寮狅級妗 cable stayed bridge
浠ユ枩鎷夛紙鏂滃紶锛夌储杩炴帴绱㈠斿拰涓绘佷綔涓烘ˉ璺ㄧ粨鏋勪富瑕佹壙閲嶆瀯浠剁殑妗ャ
6. 鎮绱锛堝悐锛夋ˉ suspension bridge
浠ラ氳繃涓ょ储濉旀偓鍨傚苟閿氬浐浜庝袱宀革紙鎴栨ˉ涓ょ锛夌殑缂嗙储锛堟垨閽㈤摼锛変綔涓烘ˉ璺ㄧ粨鏋勪富瑕佹壙閲嶆瀯浠剁殑妗ャ
7. 妗佹灦妗 trussed bridge
浠ユ佹灦浣滀负妗ヨ法缁撴瀯涓昏佹壙閲嶆瀯浠剁殑妗ワ紝鏈夋佹灦姊佹ˉ銆佹佹灦鎷辨ˉ绛夈傛潵婧愶細www.examda.com
8锛庢嗘灦妗 frame bridge
妗ヨ法缁撴瀯涓烘暣浣撶卞舰妗嗘灦鐨勬ˉ銆
9锛庡垰鏋勶紙鍒氭灦锛夋ˉ rigid frame bridge
妗ヨ法缁撴瀯涓庢ˉ澧╋紙鍙帮級鍒氭ц繛鎺ョ殑妗ワ紝鏈夎繛缁銆佹枩鑵垮垰鏋勬ˉ绛夈
10锛庢嫳妗 arch bridge
浠ユ嫳鍦堟垨鎷辫倠浣滀负妗ヨ法缁撴瀯涓昏佹壙閲嶆瀯浠剁殑妗ワ紝鏈夊弻鏇层佺卞舰鎷辨ˉ绛夈
11锛庢极姘存ˉ submersible bridge
瀹硅告椽姘存极杩囨ˉ闈㈢殑妗ャ
12锛庢诞妗 pontoon bridge
涓婇儴缁撴瀯鏋堕珮鍙傛按涓娴鍔ㄦ敮鎵匡紙濡傝埞銆佺瓘銆佹诞绠辩瓑锛変笂鐨勬ˉ銆
13锛庢ｄ氦妗 right bridge
妗ョ殑绾佃酱绾夸笌鍏惰法瓒婄殑娌虫祦娴佸悜鎴栧叕璺銆侀搧璺绛夎矾绾胯酱鍚戠浉鍨傜洿鐨勬ˉ銆
14锛庢枩浜ゆˉ skew bridge
妗ョ殑绾佃酱绾挎鍏惰法瓒婄殑娌虫祦娴佸悜鎴栧叕璺銆侀搧璺绛夎矾绾胯酱鍚戜笉鐩稿瀭鐩寸殑妗
15锛庤法绾匡紙绔嬩氦锛夋ˉ grade separated bridge; overpass bridge
璺ㄨ秺鍏璺銆侀搧璺鎴栧煄甯傞亾璺绛変氦閫氱嚎璺鍜屾ˉ銆
16锛庨珮鏋舵ˉ viact
浠ｆ浛楂樿矾鍫よ法瓒婃繁璋枫佹醇鍦版垨浜哄伐璁炬柦鐨勬ˉ銆
17锛庢ｏ紙涓伙級妗 main span
璺ㄨ秺娌抽亾涓绘Ы閮ㄥ垎鎴栨繁璋枫佷汉宸ヨ炬柦涓昏侀儴鍒嗙殑妗ャ
18锛庡紩妗 approach span
杩炴帴璺鍫ゅ拰姝ｏ紙涓伙級妗ョ殑妗ャ
19锛庡集妗 curved bridge
妗ラ潰涓蹇冪嚎鍦ㄥ钩闈涓婁负鏇茬嚎鐨勬ˉ锛屾湁涓绘佷负鐩寸嚎鑰屾ˉ闈涓烘洸绾垮拰涓绘佷笌妗ラ潰鍧囦负鏇茬嚎涓ょ嶆儏鍐点
20锛庡潯妗 Ramp bridge
璁剧疆鍦ㄧ旱鍧¤矾娈典笂鐨勬ˉ銆

③ 桥式起重机英文资料，5000字左右，带翻译，麻烦了

Overhead crane bridge crane can be divided into ordinary, simple beam bridge crane and metallurgical three special crane. Generally common crane lifting trolley, bridge run institutions, the bridge crane metal structure diagram into a group. Crab and the hoisting mechanism, trolley traveling agencies and small frame of three parts. Lifting bodies, including the motor, brake, recer, drum and pulleys. Motor through recer, driving drum rotation, so that rope around the drum or from the roll down to lift heavy objects. Is supporting for small frame and installation of lifting mechanism and the car bodies and other parts of the machine running

④ 跪求土木工程专业英语（段兵延）LESSON4 原文

Lesson 4 Tall Building

Although there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general, spectacular achievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings．
虽然在建筑施工技术中，总的来说已经有了许多进步，但是在超高层建筑的设计和施工中也取得了惊人的成就。
The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing．
高层建筑的早期发展始于结构的钢框架。
Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes．
从那以后，钢筋混凝土和薄壳筒体体系就被竞相经济地用在了许多民用和商用结构中。
The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structural systems．
美国各地正在修建的50～110层的高层建筑是新的结构体系改革和发展的结果。
Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit．
更大的高度需要增加柱和梁的尺寸来使建筑物的刚性更大，以便于它们在风荷载作用下不会倾斜到允许的范围之外。
Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions, ceilings, and other architectural details．
过分的水平倾斜将导致隔板、天花板和其他建筑物细部的严重的复发性破坏。
In addition, excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because of their perception of such motion．
此外，过分的倾斜还可能导致建筑物内部居住者的不适，因为他们感觉到了这种运动。
Structural systems of reinforced concrete, as well as steel, take full advantage of the inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore do not require additional stiffening to limit the sway．
钢筋混凝土和钢结构系统充分利用了整个建筑的固有的潜在的刚度，因此不需要额外的加强板来限制倾斜。
In a steel structure, for example, the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building.
比如，在钢结构中，可以根据建筑物的每平方英尺楼板面积所需要钢材的总平均数量来限定经济。
Curve A in Fig.1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories．
图1中的曲线A描绘的是传统框架随着增加的楼层数的平均单位重量。
Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads．
曲线B描绘的是在框架不受任何横向荷载时平均钢材重量。
The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame．
上下边界之间的间隙描绘的是传统柱梁框架由高度带来的额外费用。
Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium．
为了消除这种额外费用，结构工程师们已经发展了一些结构体系。
Tall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations.
用钢材修建的高层建筑是作为几种类型的结构的创新的结果而发展起来的。
The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings．
这种创新已经被用在办公楼和公寓大楼的施工当中。
In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses, a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used.
为了把框架结构的外柱连接到内部垂直桁架上，可以在建筑的中部和顶部设置刚性带状桁架系统。
A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building (1974) in Milwaukee．
这种体系的一个好的例子就是密尔沃基市的威斯康星第一银行大楼。
The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building，for both strength and stiffness, to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column elements can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground．
只有当所有的柱子以这样一种方式（即整个建筑作为一个中空的筒体或刚性的盒子突出于地面上）互相连接在一起时，才能获得高层建筑的整体结构对于抵抗风荷载的强度和刚度的最大功效。
This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago．The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 1l0-story World Trade Center building in New York．
这种特殊的结构体系第一次使用可能是在芝加哥的这幢43层钢筋混凝土公寓大楼中。这种体系的最有意义的使用是在纽约的110层世贸中心大厦的结构钢双塔中。
The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with diagonal members intersecting at the center line of the columns and beams．
建筑的外柱可相隔适当远的距离，它们还能被作成一个筒体一起起作用，通过把它们和对角的构件在柱和梁的中线上交叉而连接在一起。
This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Center in Chicago，using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional 40-story building．
这种简单但非常有效的体系第一次使用是在芝加哥的John Hancock中心大楼中，它用了和传统40层楼所正常需要的一样多的钢筋。
With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency．
随着对更大更高的建筑的不断需要，框筒或对顶柱桁架筒体可能被用在捆绑的形式中以形成更大的筒体外壳，同时又保持了高效力。
The 110-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tubes, bundled at the base of the building in three rows．
芝加哥的110层Sears Roebuck Headquarters大楼有9个筒体，在大楼的基础部位被捆成了三排。
Some of these indivial tubes terminate at different heights of the building，demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept．
这些独立的筒体中的一些在大楼的不同高度处中止，这是最新的结构概念的不受限制的建筑上的可能性的一个例证。
The Sears tower，at a height of 1450 ft (442 m) ，is the world’s tallest building．
The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind or earthquake) and the control of drift (1ateral building movement) in high-rise building．
筒体结构体系被发展起来是为了提高高层建筑对侧向荷载（风和地震）的抵抗，以及对建筑的侧向位移的控制。
The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further．
薄壳筒体使筒体体系又向前迈进了一步。
The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the facade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings，and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area．
薄壳筒体的进步是利用建筑的正面（墙或板）作为与框筒共同起作用的结构构件，为高层建筑抵抗侧向荷载提供了一个有效的途径，而且可获得节省成本、不设柱子、使用面积与建筑面积之比很高的室内空间。
Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin facade，the framed members of the tube require 1ess mass，and are thus lighter and less expensive．
因为薄壳立面的作用，筒体的框架构件需要量就更少，因此就更轻更便宜。
All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes，minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members．
所有代表性的柱和窗下墙的墙托梁都是标准的轧制形式，这可以使特殊的组合构件的用量和成本降到最低。
The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space，is minimized．
周围窗下墙托梁的厚度要求也就降低了，将侵占有用空间的楼板上的梁的需求也减到了最少。
The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in Pittsburgh．
While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start，development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive challenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings．
当早期有了用钢筋修建的高层建筑的时候，钢筋混凝土的高层建筑也在以一个很快的速度发展，从而形成了对钢结构系统的激烈挑战，不论是在办公大楼还是在公寓大楼的使用中。
Framed tube 框筒
As discussed above，the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building．
如前所讨论的，框筒的概念第一次被用于高层建筑是在43层的DeWitt Chestnut 公寓大楼中。
In this building，exterior columns were spaced at 5.5-ft (1.68-m) centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in. -thick (20-cm) flat-plate concrete slabs．
在这幢建筑中，外柱中线间隔了1.68m，内柱被用来支撑20cm厚的混凝土平板。
Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube．
办公大楼中用钢筋混凝土的另一种系统是把传统的剪力墙结构和一个外部的框筒结合起来。
The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area．
该体系由间距很小的柱子构成的外框筒和围绕中心设备区的刚性剪力墙内筒组成。
The system (Fig.2), known as the tube-in-tube system，made it possible to design the world’s present tallest (714 ft or 218m) lightweight concrete building (the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear wall structure of only 35 stories．
被称为筒中筒的这种系统，使设计出目前世界上最高的轻质混凝土大楼成为可能，并且这幢大楼的单位价格仅是传统的35层剪力墙结构的单位价格。
Systems combining both concrete and steel have also been developed，an example of which is the composite system developed by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems．The 52-story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system．
混凝土和钢筋组合使用的系统也已经被发展起来，这种系统的一个例子就是由Skidmore，Owings和Merrill共同发展的复合体系，在该体系中，一个间隔很近的混凝土外框筒包裹着一个内钢框架，因此它结合了钢筋混凝土和钢结构系统的优点。52层的新奥尔良广场大楼就是建立在这种系统的基础之上。
This text mainly introced some structural types of high-rise building, such as systems in steel, frames with rigid belt trusses, framed tube, stressed-skin tube system, tube in tube, etc. In addition, it gives us some examples which are representational.
这篇文章主要介绍了高层建筑的一些结构类型，比如钢筋体系、刚性带状桁架框架、框筒、薄壳筒体体系、筒中筒等等。此外，文章还给我们举了一些具有代表性的实例。

希望帮到你。

⑤ 求一篇施工方面文章及英文翻译 谢

高层建筑
大体上建筑施工工艺学方面已经有许多进步, 在超高层的设计和施工上已经取得了惊人的成就。
高层建筑早期的发展开始于钢结构。钢筋混凝土和薄壳筒系统已经经济而竞争性地被用于大量的住宅和商业目的的结构。由于新型结构系统的创新和发展，现在从50到100层的高层建筑遍布全美国。
更大高度的要求增加了梁柱的尺寸以使建筑物刚性更强，以便在风荷载作用下建筑物将不会产生超过一个可接受限度的摆动。过度的侧移可能导致隔墙，天花板和其他建筑细部的重复性损害。此外，过度侧倾可能使建筑物的居住者因为对摆动的知觉而导致不便。钢筋混凝土和钢结构系统，能充分利用整个建筑物固有潜在的劲性，因而不需要额外加劲以限制侧倾。
例如，在一个钢结构中，经济性由建筑物房屋面积每平方英尺钢的全部平均数量来定义。图一中的曲线A采用层逐渐增加的数量表现传统框架的平均单位重。曲线B则表现框架受到所有横向荷载保护下的平均钢重量。上下边界之间的间隙则表现传统梁柱框架为高度付出的额外费用。结构工程师已经发展了可消除这一额外费用的结构系统。
钢结构体系。因为一些类型的结构改革，钢高层建筑物得到了发展。此改革被用于办公大楼和公寓的建造。
带有刚性带式桁架的框架。为了将一个框架结构的外柱约束于内部的垂直梁架,可能在建筑物中部和顶部采用一个刚性带式桁架的系统。这一系统的最好例证是在密尔瓦基的威斯康辛州第一银行建筑物 (1974)。
框架筒体。只有当建筑物突出地面的所有的柱构件能够彼此连接使整个建筑物成为一个空心筒体或一个劲性箱体时，一幢高层建筑的整个结构才能最有效。这种特殊的结构体系第一次大概是用于芝加哥的43层楼高的德威特栗木钢筋混凝土公寓。而这一系统最重要的应用是纽约的110层楼高的世界贸易中心的钢结构双塔。
对角柱桁架支撑筒体。建筑物的外柱可以被适当的分隔却仍能通过在梁柱中线处交叉对角构件连接使之作为一个筒体而共同工作。这种简单而又极其有用的系统最早被用于芝加哥的约翰汉考克中心，其仅仅使用了传统的40层楼高建筑的用钢量
组合筒体（束筒）。由于对更大更高的建筑物的持续需求，框架筒和对角柱桁架支撑筒可能采用组合使用的形式以创造更大的筒，并仍可以保持高功效。芝加哥110层楼高的西尔斯瑞巴克总部有9个筒，由三排建筑物组合而成。一些个别筒体终止在建筑物不同的高度，证明了无限建筑可能性的结构观念。西尔斯塔高1450英尺（442m），是世界上最高的建筑。
薄壳筒体系。筒结构体系的发展提高了高层建筑抵抗侧向力（风和地震作用）和飘移（建筑物的侧向运动）的能力。薄壳筒使筒结构体系有了进一步的发展。薄壳筒的进步是利用（高层）建筑的外表面（墙和板）作为与框筒共同作用的结构构件，为高层建筑抵抗侧向荷载提供了一个有效的途径，而且可获得不设柱子，节省成本，使用面积与建筑面积之比很高的室内空间。
由于薄壳表面的作用，筒体的框架构件数量减少，使得结构更轻，费用更少。所有标准柱和外墙托梁都采用标准型钢，使得组合构件的使用和花费最小化。四周外墙托梁的深度要求也被减少，而且楼板上的顶梁对有用空间的占用会达到最小。这种结构系统已经被使用于 54 层楼高的匹兹堡的梅隆银行中心。
混凝土体系。虽然采用钢结构建造的高层建筑开始很早，但是钢筋混凝土高层建筑的快速发展在办公大楼和公寓方面对钢结构体系产生了很大的挑战。
框架筒体。由上面讨论到的，高层建筑最早的框架筒体概念应用于43层楼高的德威特栗木公寓。在这一建筑物中，外柱以中心距为5.5英尺（168米）的间隔排列，内柱则用于支撑8英寸厚的混凝土平板。
筒中筒。另一个用于办公大楼的钢筋混凝土结构体系是将内部框架筒体与传统的剪力墙工艺相结合。这种体系由间距很小的柱子构成的外框架筒与围绕中心设备区的刚性剪力墙内筒组成。这种被称为筒中筒的体系使设计目前世界上最高（714英尺或218米），总费用只相当于传统35层楼高的剪力墙结构体系的轻型混凝土建筑（52层楼高的休斯顿的壳广场建筑）成为可能。
结合混凝土和钢的体系也得到发展，这方面的一个例子是由Skidmore, Owings 和 Merrill发展的复合体系。它是采用间距很小的混凝土外框架筒包围钢框架内筒组成，因此兼有钢筋混凝土和钢结构体系的优点。在新奥尔良的一个 52 层楼高的壳广场建筑便是以这一体系为基础。

Tall Buildings

Although there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general, spectacular achievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.

The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing. Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes. The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structural systems.

Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit. Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions, ceilings, and other architectural details. In addition, excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because of their perception of such motion. Structural systems of reinforced concrete, as well as steel, take full advantage of the inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore do not require additional stiffening to limit the sway.

In a steel structure, for example, the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building. Curve A in Fig. 1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame; Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.

Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings.

Frames with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses, a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building (1974) in Milwaukee.

Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for both strength and stiffness, to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column elements can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago. The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New York.

Column-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with. Diagonal members intersecting at the center line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Center in Chicago, using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional story building.

Fig. 1. Graphical relationship between design quantities of steel and building heights for a typical building frame. Curves A and B correspond to the boundary conditions indicated in the two building diagrams. 1 psf = 0. 048kPa.

Bundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The i10-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tubes, bundled at tile base of the building in three rows. Some of these indivial tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft (442 m), is the world's tallest building.

Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind or earthquake) and the control of drift (lateral building movement) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the facade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area.

Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin facade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes, minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized. The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in Pittsburgh.

Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive challenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings.

Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building, exterior columns were spaced at 5.5-ft (1.68-m) centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in.-thick (20-cm) flat-plate concrete slabs.

Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system (Fig.2), known as the tube-in-tube system, made it possible to design the world's present tallest (714 ft or 218m) lightweight concrete Building in Houston)for structure of only 35 s oriel building the unit 52—story One Shell Plaza of a traditional shear wall

Systems compiling both concrete and steel have also been developed，an example of which is the composite system developed by Skidmore，Owings & Merrill in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing，thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural

steel systems．The 52—story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system．

NEW WORDS AND PHRASES
1．spectacular 壮观的，惊人的，引人注意的
2．sway 摇动，摇摆，歪，使倾斜
3．residential 居住的，住宅的，作住家用的
4．commercial 商业的，商业上的，商务的
5．innovation 革新，创新，新方法，新事物
6．boundary 分界线，边界
7．eliminate 排除，消除，除去
8．apartment 公寓住宅，单元住宅
9．column 柱，支柱，圆柱，柱状物
10．demonstrate 示范，证明，演示，
11．project 凸出，投射，计划，工程
12．stress 应力，压力
13．truss 构架，桁架
14．bundle 捆，束，包
15．terminate 使终止，使结尾，结束
16．facade (房屋的)／E面，立面，表面
17．perimeter 周，周围，周界，周长
18．encroach 侵犯，侵占，蚕食
19．high•rise building 高层建筑
20．reinforced concrete 钢筋混凝土
21．spandrel beam 窗下墙的墙托梁
22．shear wall 剪力墙