英语单词taxa怎么读

⑴ 鎭愰緳 鑻辫

Dinosaur

-----------
Dinosaurs were vertebrate animals that dominated the terrestrial ecosystem for over 160 million years, first appearing approximately 230 million years ago. At the end of the Cretaceous period 65 million years ago, dinosaurs suffered a catastrophic extinction, which ended their dominance on land. Modern birds are considered to be the direct descendants of theropod dinosaurs.

Since the first dinosaur was recognized in the 19th century, their mounted, fossilized skeletons have become major attractions at museums around the world. Dinosaurs have become a part of world culture and remain consistently popular, especially among children. They have been featured in best-selling books and blockbuster films such as Jurassic Park, and new discoveries are regularly covered by the media.

The term dinosaur is also used informally to describe any prehistoric reptile, such as the pelycosaur Dimetrodon, the winged pterosaurs, and the aquatic ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, and mosasaurs, though none of these are actually dinosaurs.

Definition
----------
The superorder or clade "Dinosauria" was formally named by the English scientist Richard Owen in 1842. The term is a portmanteau derived from the Greek words deinos ("terrible" or "fearfully great" or "formidable") and sauros ("lizard" or "reptile"). Owen chose it to express his awe at the size and majesty of the extinct animals, not out of fear or trepidation at their size and often-formidable arsenal of teeth and claws.

Dinosaurs were extremely varied. Some were herbivorous, others carnivorous. Some dinosaurs were bipeds, some were quadrupeds, and others (such as the dinosaur Ammosaurus) could walk easily on two or four legs.

Under phylogenetic taxonomy, dinosaurs are defined as all descendants of the most recent common ancestor of Triceratops and modern birds. Ornithischia is defined as all taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with Triceratops than with Saurischia. Saurischia is defined as all taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with birds than with Ornithischia. It has also been suggested that Dinosauria be defined as all the descendants of the most recent common ancestor of Megalosaurus and Iguanodon.

There is an almost universal consensus among paleontologists that birds are the descendants of theropod dinosaurs. Using the strict cladistical definition that all descendants of a single common ancestor are related, modern birds are dinosaurs and dinosaurs are, therefore, not extinct. Modern birds are classified by most paleontologists as belonging to the subgroup Maniraptora, which are coelurosaurs, which are theropods, which are saurischians, which are dinosaurs.

However, referring to birds as "avian dinosaurs" and to all other dinosaurs as "non-avian dinosaurs" is clumsy. Birds are still birds, at least in popular usage and among ornithologists. It is also technically correct to refer to birds as a distinct group under the older Linnaean classification system, which accepts paraphyletic taxa that exclude some descendants of a single common ancestor. Paleontologists mostly use cladistics, which classifies birds as dinosaurs, to construct their taxonomies, but many other scientists do not.

For clarity, this article will use "dinosaur" as a synonym for "non-avian dinosaur", and "bird" as a synonym for "avian dinosaur" (meaning any animal that evolved from the common ancestor of Archaeopteryx and modern birds). It should be noted that this article's definition of "bird" differs from the definition common in everyday language; to most non-scientists, a "bird" is simply a two-legged animal with wings and feathers.

Size
-----

Only a tiny percentage of animals ever fossilize, and most of these remain buried in the earth. As a result, scientists will probably never be certain of the smallest and largest dinosaurs. Few of the specimens that are recovered are complete skeletons, and impressions of skin and other soft tissues are rare. Rebuilding a complete skeleton by comparing the size and morphology of bones to those of similar, better-known species is an inexact art, and reconstructing the muscles and other organs of the living animal is, at best, a process of ecated guesswork.

Largest and smallest dinosaurs

A statue of Diplodocus carnegiei, outside the Carnegie Museum of Natural History.
Size of a human compared to a Tyrannosaurus rex.While the evidence is incomplete, it is clear that, as a group, dinosaurs were large. By dinosaur standards the sauropods were gigantic. For much of the dinosaur era, the smallest sauropods were larger than anything else in their habitat, and the largest were an order of magnitude more massive than anything else that has since walked the Earth.

The tallest and heaviest dinosaur known from a complete skeleton is the Brachiosaurus, which was discovered in Tanzania between 1907鈥12. It is now mounted and on display at the Humboldt Museum of Berlin and is 12 m (38 ft) tall and probably weighed between 30,000鈥60,000 kg (33鈥66 short tons). The longest complete dinosaur is the 27 m (89 ft) long Diplodocus, which was discovered in Wyoming in the United States and displayed in Pittsburgh's Carnegie Natural History Museum in 1907.

There were larger dinosaurs, but knowledge of them is based entirely on a small number of incomplete fossil samples. The largest specimens on record were all discovered in the 1970s or later, and include the massive Argentinosaurus, which may have weighed 80,000鈥100,000 kg (88鈥121 tons); the longest, the 40 m (130 ft) long Supersaurus; and the tallest, the 18 m (60 ft) Sauroposeidon, which could have reached a sixth-floor window.

Dinosaurs were the largest of all terrestrial animals. The largest elephant on record weighed 12,000 kg (13.2 tons), while the tallest giraffe was 6 m (20 ft) tall. Even giant prehistoric mammals such as the Indricotherium and the Columbian mammoth were dwarfed by the giant sauropods. Only a handful of modern aquatic animals approach them in size, most notably the blue whale (which reaches up to 190,000 kg (209 tons) and 33.5 m (110 ft) in length).

Not including modern birds like the bee hummingbird, the smallest dinosaurs known were about the size of a crow or a chicken. The Microraptor, Parvicursor, and Saltopus were all under 60 cm (2 ft) in length.

Average size

The meaning of "dinosaur average size" is debatable. However it is defined, current evidence suggests different values for average size in the Triassic, early Jurassic, late Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.[1] According to Bill Erickson, "Estimates of median dinosaur mass range from 500 kg to 5 metric tons [...] Eighty percent of the biomass from the Late Jurassic Morrison formation of the western United States consisted of stegosaurs and sauropods; the latter averaged 20 tons. [...] The typically large size of the dinosaurs, and the comparatively small size of modern mammals, has been quantified by Nicholas Hotton. Based on 63 dinosaur genera, Hotton's data yield an average generic mass in excess of 850 kg (about the size of an average grizzly bear) and a median generic mass of nearly 2 tons (which is comparable to a giraffe). This contrasts sharply with extant mammals (788 genera) whose average generic mass is 863 grams (a large rodent) and a median mass of 631 grams (a smaller rodent). The smallest dinosaur was bigger than two-thirds of all current mammals; the majority of dinosaurs were bigger than all but 2% of living mammals."

Behavior
--------
Interpretations of dinosaur behavior are generally based on the pose of body fossils and their habitat, computer simulations of their biomechanics, and comparisons with modern animals in similar ecological niches. As such, the current understanding of dinosaur behavior relies on speculation, and will likely remain controversial for the foreseeable future. However, there is general agreement that some behaviors which are common in crocodiles and birds, dinosaurs' closest living relatives, were also common among dinosaurs.

The first direct evidence of herding behavior was the 1878 discovery of 31 Iguanodon dinosaurs which perished together in Bernissart, Belgium, after they fell into a deep, flooded ravine and drowned. Similar mass deaths and trackways suggest that herd or pack behavior was common in many dinosaur species. Trackways of hundreds or even thousands of herbivores indicate that ck-bills (hadrosaurids) may have moved in great herds, like the American Bison or the African Springbok. Sauropod tracks document that these animals traveled in groups composed of several different species, at least in Oxford, England,[3] and others kept their young in the middle of the herd for defense according to trackways at Davenport Ranch, Texas. Dinosaurs may have congregated in herds for defense, for migratory purposes, or to provide protection for their young.

A nesting ground of Maiasaura was discovered in 1978.Jack Horner's 1978 discovery of a Maiasaura ("good mother dinosaur") nesting ground in Montana demonstrated that parental care continued long after birth among the ornithopods.[4][5] There is also evidence that other Cretaceous-era dinosaurs, like the Patagonian sauropod Saltasaurus (1997 discovery), had similar nesting behaviors, and that the animals congregated in huge nesting colonies like those of penguins. The Mongolian maniraptoran Oviraptor was discovered in a chicken-like brooding position in 1993, which may mean it was covered with an insulating layer of feathers that kept the eggs warm.[6] Trackways have also confirmed parental behavior among sauropods and ornithopods from the Isle of Skye in the United Kingdom.[7] Nests and eggs have been found for most major groups of dinosaurs, and it appears likely that dinosaurs communicated with their young, in a manner similar to modern birds and crocodiles.

The crests and frills of some dinosaurs, like the marginocephalians, theropods and lambeosaurines, may have been too fragile to be used for active defense, so they were likely used for sexual or aggressive displays, though little is known about dinosaur mating and territorialism. The nature of dinosaur communication also remains enigmatic, and is an active area of research. For example, recent evidence suggests that the hollow crests of the lambeosaurines may have functioned as resonance chambers used for a wide range of vocalizations.

From a behavioral standpoint, one of the most valuable dinosaur fossils was discovered in the Gobi Desert in 1971. It included a Velociraptor attacking a Protoceratops,[8] proving that dinosaurs did indeed attack and eat each other. While cannibalistic behavior among theropods is no surprise,[9] this too was confirmed by tooth marks from Madagascar in 2003.[10]

There seem to have been no burrowing and few climbing dinosaur species. This is somewhat surprising when compared to the later mammalian radiation in the Cenozoic, which included many species of these types. As to how the animals moved, biomechanics has provided significant insight. For example, studies of the forces exerted by muscles and gravity on dinosaurs' skeletal structure have demonstrated how fast dinosaurs could run,[11][12] whether diplodocids could create sonic booms via whip-like tail snapping,[13] whether giant theropods had to slow down when rushing for food to avoid fatal injuries,[14] and if sauropods could float.[15]

[edit]
Study of dinosaurs
Knowledge about dinosaurs is derived from a variety of fossil and non-fossil records, including fossilized bones, feces, trackways, gastroliths, feathers, impressions of skin, internal organs and soft tissues.[16][17] Many fields of study contribute to our understanding of dinosaurs, including physics, chemistry, biology, and the earth sciences (of which paleontology is a sub-discipline).

Dinosaur remains have been found on every continent on Earth, including Antarctica. Numerous fossils of the same dinosaur species have been found on completely different continents, corroborating the generally-accepted theory that all land masses were at one time connected in a super-continent called Pangaea. Pangaea began to break apart ring the Triassic period roughly 230 million years ago.[18]

The current "dinosaur renaissance"
--------------------------------------
The field of dinosaur research has enjoyed a surge in activity that began in the 1970s and is ongoing. This was triggered, in part, by John Ostrom's discovery of Deinonychus, an active, vicious predator that may have been warm-blooded (homeothermic), in marked contrast to the prevailing image of dinosaurs as sluggish and cold-blooded. Vertebrate paleontology, arguably the primary scientific discipline involved in dinosaur research, has become a global science. Major new dinosaur discoveries have been made by paleontologists working in previously unexploited regions, including India, South America, Madagascar, Antarctica, and most significantly in China (the amazingly well-preserved feathered dinosaurs in China have further solidified the link between dinosaurs and their living descendants, modern birds). The widespread application of cladistics, which rigorously analyzes the relationships between biological organisms, has also proved tremendously useful in classifying dinosaurs. Cladistic analysis, among other modern techniques, helps to compensate for an often incomplete and fragmentary fossil record.

Classification
----------------
Main article: Dinosaur classification

Dinosaurs (including birds) are archosaurs, like modern crocodilians. Archosaurs' diapsid skulls have two holes located where the jaw muscles attach, called temporal fenestrae. Most reptiles (including birds) are diapsids; mammals, with only one temporal fenestra, are called synapsids; and turtles, with no temporal fenestra, are anapsids. Anatomically, dinosaurs share many other archosaur characteristics, including teeth that grow from sockets rather than as direct extensions of the jawbones. Within the archosaur group, dinosaurs are differentiated most noticeably by their gait. Dinosaur legs extend directly beneath the body, whereas the legs of lizards and crocodylians sprawl out to either side. All dinosaurs were land animals.

Many other types of reptiles lived at the same time as the dinosaurs. Some of these are commonly, but incorrectly, thought of as dinosaurs, including plesiosaurs (which are not closely related to the dinosaurs) and pterosaurs, which developed separately from reptilian ancestors in the late Triassic period.

Dinosaurs are divided into two orders, the Saurischia and the Ornithischia, on the basis of their hip structure. Saurischians (from the Greek meaning "lizard hip") are dinosaurs that originally retained the hip structure of their ancestors. They include all the theropods (bipedal carnivores) and sauropods (long-necked herbivores). Ornithischians (from the Greek meaning "bird-hip") is the other dinosaurian order, most of which were quadrupedal herbivores.

Evolution
---------------
A reconstruction of Eoraptor, an early dinosaur.Dinosaurs split off from their archosaur ancestors approximately 230 million years ago ring the early Triassic period, roughly 20 million years after the Permian-Triassic extinction event wiped out an estimated 95 percent of all life on Earth.[19] [20] Radiometric dating of fossils from the early dinosaur species Eoraptor establishes its presence in the fossil record at this time. Paleontologists believe Eoraptor resembles the common ancestor of all dinosaurs; [21] if this is true, its traits suggest that the first dinosaurs were small, bipedal predators.[22]

Also among the earliest dinosaurs was the primitive Lagosuchus; Saltopus, which was barely larger than a human hand, appeared slightly later. The first few lines of primitive dinosaurs diversified rapidly through the rest of the Triassic period; dinosaur species quickly evolved the specialized features and range of sizes needed to exploit nearly every terrestrial ecological niche. During the period of dinosaur predominance, which encompassed the ensuing Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, nearly every known land animal larger than 1 meter in length was a dinosaur.

The Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event, which occured approximately 65 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period, caused the extinction of all dinosaurs except for the line that had already given rise to the first birds. Other diapsid species related to the dinosaurs also survived the event.

Warm-blooded?

Dinosaur models at the Royal Ontario Museum.A vigorous debate on the subject of temperature regulation in dinosaurs has been ongoing since the 1960s. Originally, scientists broadly disagreed as to whether dinosaurs were capable of regulating their body temperatures at all. More recently, dinosaur endothermy has become the consensus view, and debate has focused on the mechanisms of temperature regulation.

After dinosaurs were discovered, paleontologists first posited that they were ectothermic creatures: "terrible lizards" as their name suggests. This supposed cold-bloodedness implied that dinosaurs were relatively slow, sluggish organisms, comparable to modern reptiles, which need external sources of heat in order to regulate their body temperature. Dinosaur ectothermy remained a prevalent view until Robert T. "Bob" Bakker, an early proponent of dinosaur endothermy, published an influential paper on the topic in 1968.

Modern evidence indicates that dinosaurs thrived in cooler temperate climates, and that at least some dinosaur species must have regulated their body temperature by internal biological means (perhaps aided by the animals' bulk). Evidence of endothermism in dinosaurs includes the discovery of polar dinosaurs in Australia and Antarctica (where they would have experienced a cold, dark six-month winter), the discovery of dinosaurs whose feathers may have provided regulatory insulation, and analysis of blood-vessel structures that are typical of endotherms within dinosaur bone. Skeletal structures suggest that theropods and other dinosaurs had active lifestyles better suited to an endothermic cardiovascular system, while sauropods exhibit fewer endothermic characteristics. It is certainly possible that some dinosaurs were endothermic while others were not. Scientific debate over the specifics continues.[23]

Complicating the debate is the fact that warm-bloodedness can emerge based on more than one mechanism. Most discussions of dinosaur endothermy tend to compare them to average birds or mammals, which expend energy to elevate body temperature above that of the environment. Small birds and mammals also possess insulation, such as fat, fur, or feathers, which slows down heat loss. However, large mammals, such as elephants, face a different problem e to their relatively small ratio of surface area to volume (Haldane's principle). This ratio compares the volume of an animal with the area of its skin: as an animal gets bigger, its surface area increases more slowly than its volume. At a certain point, the amount of heat radiated away through the skin drops below the amount of heat proced inside the body, forcing animals to use additional methods to avoid overheating. In the case of elephants, they are hairless, and have large ears which increase their surface area, and have behavioral adaptations as well (such as using the trunk to spray water on themselves and mud wallowing). These behaviors increase cooling through evaporation.

Large dinosaurs would presumably have had to deal with similar issues; their body size would dictate that they lost heat relatively slowly to the surrounding air, and so could have been what are called bulk endotherms, animals that are warmer than their environments through sheer size rather than through special adaptations

⑵ thea鎬庝箞璇

thea鐨勮绘硶锛氳嫳 ['胃iːə]锛岀編 ['胃iə]銆

thea锛岃嫳璇鍗曡瘝锛屼富瑕佺敤浣滀负鍚嶈瘝锛岀敤浣滃悕璇嶈瘧涓衡滐紙濂冲瓙鍚嶏級鈥濄

鍙岃渚嬪彞锛

The great Carolus Linnaeus concluded that the two were distinct taxa: Thea viridis and Thea bohea銆

浼熷ぇ鐨勫崱娲涙柉路鏋楀堝緱鍑虹粨璁猴紝涓よ呮槸鎴鐒朵笉鍚岀殑绫荤兢锛氱繝缁胯尪鍜岀孩瑜愯尪銆

When Thea and her husband moved to Los Angeles a few years ago, she had no friends close by and was alone frequently while her husband worked long hours銆

鍑犲勾鍓嶈タ濞呭拰涓堝か鎼杩佸埌娲涙潐鐭舵椂锛屽ス鍛ㄥ洿娌℃湁鏈嬪弸锛屽湪涓堝か鏁村ぉ蹇欎簬宸ヤ綔鏃讹紝濂圭粡甯告劅瑙夐潪甯稿ゅ崟銆

The great Carolus Linnaeus, a century before, working from dried samples brought back from China by earlier explorers, concluded that the two were distinct taxa: Thea viridis and Thea bohea銆

涓涓涓栫邯浠ュ墠锛屼紵澶х殑鍗＄綏涔屾柉鏋楀堟牴鎹鏃╂湡鎺㈤櫓瀹舵墍甯﹀洖鏉ョ殑鑼跺彾姝讳骸鏍囨湰鐮旂┒鍚庤や负杩欐槑鏄炬槸涓ょ被鐗╃嶏紝缈犵豢鑼跺拰绾㈣愯尪銆

⑶ 求带有bt的英文单词，词组也行，越多越好，谢了。

一共有213个符合要求的单词：
bobtail
bobtailed
bobtailing
bobtails
codebtor
codebtors
debt
debtless
debtor
debtors
debts
doubt
doubtable
doubted
doubter
doubters
doubtful
doubtfully
doubtfulness
doubtfulnesses
doubting
doubtingly
doubtless
doubtlessly
doubtlessness
doubtlessnesses
doubts
indebted
indebtedness
indebtednesses
misdoubt
misdoubted
misdoubting
misdoubts
obtain
obtainabilities
obtainability
obtainable
obtained
obtainer
obtainers
obtaining
obtainment
obtainments
obtains
obtect
obtected
obtest
obtested
obtesting
obtests
obtrude
obtruded
obtruder
obtruders
obtrudes
obtruding
obtrusion
obtrusions
obtrusive
obtrusively
obtrusiveness
obtrusivenesses
obtund
obtunded
obtunding
obtunds
obturate
obturated
obturates
obturating
obturation
obturations
obturator
obturators
obtuse
obtusely
obtuseness
obtusenesses
obtuser
obtusest
obtusities
obtusity
overindebtedness
overindebtednesses
oversubtle
redoubt
redoubtable
redoubtably
redoubts
reobtain
reobtained
reobtaining
reobtains
subtask
subtasks
subtaxa
subtaxon
subtaxons
subteen
subteens
subtemperate
subtenancies
subtenancy
subtenant
subtenants
subtend
subtended
subtending
subtends
subterfuge
subterfuges
subterminal
subterranean
subterraneanly
subterraneous
subterraneously
subtest
subtests
subtext
subtexts
subtextual
subtheme
subthemes
subtherapeutic
subthreshold
subtile
subtilely
subtileness
subtilenesses
subtiler
subtilest
subtilin
subtilins
subtilisin
subtilisins
subtilization
subtilizations
subtilize
subtilized
subtilizes
subtilizing
subtilties
subtilty
subtitle
subtitled
subtitles
subtitling
subtle
subtleness
subtlenesses
subtler
subtlest
subtleties
subtlety
subtly
subtone
subtones
subtonic
subtonics
subtopia
subtopias
subtopic
subtopics
subtotal
subtotaled
subtotaling
subtotalled
subtotalling
subtotally
subtotals
subtract
subtracted
subtracter
subtracters
subtracting
subtraction
subtractions
subtractive
subtracts
subtrahend
subtrahends
subtreasuries
subtreasury
subtrend
subtrends
subtribe
subtribes
subtropic
subtropical
subtropics
subtunic
subtunics
subtype
subtypes
supersubtle
supersubtleties
supersubtlety
thumbtack
thumbtacked
thumbtacking
thumbtacks
undoubtable
undoubted
undoubtedly
undoubting
unobtainable
unobtrusive
unobtrusively
unobtrusiveness
unobtrusivenesses
unsubtle
unsubtly

⑷ 猴子（英语简介）

The monkey is a commonly known as. Primates in many animals we call monkey. Primates are the class Mammalia 1 head. Animalia most higher taxa, the brain developed towards the front; orbit, orbital spacing narrow; the hand and foot toe (HSI) separately, the thumb is flexible, the majority can and other toe (HSI) to hold. Including the suborder Prosimii and anthropoidea. Prosimii face like fox; no cheek pouches and gluteal callosity; short forelimbs from the hind, the thumb and the big toe developed, with other finger ( toe) relative; tail should not curl or absent.

猴是一个俗称。灵长目中很多动物我们都称之为猴。灵长目是哺乳纲的1目。动物界最高等的类群，大脑发达；眼眶朝向前方，眶间距窄；手和脚的趾（指）分开，大拇指灵活，多数能与其他趾（指）对握。包括原猴亚目和猿猴亚目。原猴亚目颜面似狐；无颊囊和臀胼胝；前肢短于后肢，拇指与大趾发达，能与其他指（趾）相对；尾不能卷曲或缺如。

⑸ 动物是怎么分类的

哺乳动物的分类地位和分目
（http://wikipedia.cnblog.org/wiki/%E5%93%BA%E4%B9%B3%E5%8A%A8%E7%89%A9）
： 动物界
门： 脊索动物门
亚门： 脊椎动物亚门
纲： Mammalia
目

* 单孔目
* 鼩负鼠目
* 智鲁负鼠目
* 袋鼬目
* 袋貂目
* 袋狸目
* 有袋目
* 袋鼹目
* 袋鼠目
* 贫齿目
* 食虫目
* 树鼩目
* 皮翼目
* 翼手目
* 灵长目
* 食肉目
* 鲸目
* 海牛目
* 长鼻目
* 奇蹄目
* 蹄兔目
* 管齿目
* 偶蹄目
* 鳞甲目
* 啮齿目
* 兔形目
* 象鼩目

爬行动物现存四目，另外还有大量已灭绝种类，全部现生及灭绝种类依据颅骨结构分类，分类如下（标*为灭绝种类）：
(http://wikipedia.cnblog.org/wiki/%E7%88%AC%E8%A1%8C%E7%BA%B2)
* 无孔亚纲
o 杯龙目*
o 中龙目*
o 龟鳖目
* 单孔亚纲*
o 盘龙目*
o 兽孔目*
* 调孔亚纲*
o 蛇颈龙目*
o 鱼龙目*
* 双孔亚纲
o 始鳄目*
o 喙头目
o 蚓蜥目
o 有鳞目
+ 蜥蜴亚目
+ 蛇亚目
* 阔孔亚纲
o 槽齿目*
o 鳄目
o 翼龙目*
o 鸟臀目*
o 蜥臀目*

其中鸟臀目和蜥臀目常被俗称为恐龙

近几年，有少数学者提出鸟臀目和蜥臀目(即恐龙)是温血动物，应与鸟类合并为一纲。
生物分类法
维基网络，自由的网络全书
Jump to: navigation, search

生物分类法，又称科学分类法，是生物学用来对生物的物种进行归类的办法。现代生物分类法源于林奈（Carolus Linnaeus）的系统，他根据物种共有的生理特征进行了分类。在林奈之后，根据达尔文（Charles Darwin）关于共同祖先的原则，此系统被逐渐改进。近年来，分子系统学应用了生物信息学方法分析基因组DNA，正在大幅改动很多原有的分类。生物分类法属于分类学以及生物系统学。

目录
[隐藏]

* 1 现代发展
* 2 早期分类系统
o 2.1 林奈氏分类法
* 3 举例
* 4 分类名称后缀
* 5 参见
* 6 外部链接

[编辑]

现代发展

尽管林奈当时对生物进行分类只是为了方便鉴别，现在人们已经广泛赞同分类应反映出达尔文关于共同祖先的原则。

随著1960年代支序分类（英文cladistics）或称分支学说（英文cladism）的出现，一个分类单元被定位在演化树的某个位置。如果一个分类单元包括且仅包括某一个共同祖先的所有后代，称其为单系群（英文monophyly）；相对应的，若该单元包括其共同祖先，但未包括其所有后代，则称之为并系群（英文paraphyly）；若该分类不包括其最近共同祖先，则称之为复系群（英文polyphyly）。根据分支学说，一个自然分类应该是单系群而非并系或复系。

目前正在计划一种新的命名法，称做PhyloCode，用来处理演化支（英文clade）而非分类单元（拉丁文taxon，复数taxa）。现在仍不清楚，这种新的命名法能否和其它的命名法则并存。

比较新的分类法中，域或称总界是最高的单元。三域系统最初被创立于1990年，此后逐渐被学界承认。目前，大多数学家已经接受了此系统，但仍有一些学者遵循五界系统。三域系统的基本特征是将原本在细菌界（或称原核生物界(Monera)）中的古细菌和真细菌独立成细菌域(Bacteria)和古菌域(Archaea)。还有一些学者将古细菌列为第六个界但不接受三域系统。
[编辑]

早期分类系统

最早已知的对生命形式的分类系统由希腊哲学家亚里士多德所建立。他将动物根据运动方式（空中，陆上或水中）分类。1172年塞维利亚的法官伊本·路世德（ibn Rushd，即阿维罗伊Averroes）将亚里士多德的《论灵魂》（拉丁文de Anima）翻译成阿拉伯文并删节。其原始注解已佚，但由斯考特（Michael Scot）翻译的拉丁文版本仍流传。

在中国，明代李时珍（约1518–1593）在药典《本草纲目》中，将生物药材分为草部、谷部、菜部、果部、木部、虫部、鳞部、介部、禽部、兽部和人部。瑞士教授康拉德·冯·盖斯纳（Conrad von Gesner, 1516–1565）将当时已知的生物进行了分析性的归纳。

新大陆的发现为欧洲带来了很多新奇的动物种类的描述和标本。在16世纪晚期和17世纪早期，人们开始对动物进行了详细描述，先是人们熟悉的种类，随后逐渐扩展，直到形成了基于解剖学基础的足够大的知识体系。这些解剖学知识主要来源于医学解剖学家，随后昆虫学家和最初的显微镜学者将分类的范围进一步扩大。
[编辑]

林奈氏分类法

卡尔·林奈（Carolus Linnaeus, 1707–1778）的巨著《自然系统》（拉丁文Systema Naturae）在其一生中被改编过12次（1735年第一版）。在此书中，自然界被划分为三个界：矿物、植物和动物。林奈用了四个分类等级：纲、目、属和种。

林奈所建立了用于命名所有物种的学名的方法，并沿用至今。在林奈之前，命名一个物种需要很长的包括许多单词的名称，其中包括了对物种的描述，并且这些名称不固定。林奈将物种名称统一成两个字母的拉丁文名称，即学名，由此分开了命名法和分类法。这种生物命名的方法称作双名法，具体命名办法和书写规则参见双名法条目。

目前，命名法由命名法规（Nomenclature Codes）所管理。命名包括了不同等级的分类单元的名称。

尽管在汉语中，各物种及分类单元有对应的汉语名称，但在学术上为了方便交流和避免一物多名或一名多物的问题发生，所有国家仍通用拉丁语的命名法，物种的学名也专指双名法的名称。拉丁语的好处在于，它基本已经是一种“死”的语言，不再用作口语，因此相对稳定。
[编辑]

举例

常用的五种生物（果蝇、人、豌豆、酿酒酵母和大肠杆菌）的名称和分类如下：
中文 英文 拉丁文
(单数, 复数) 果蝇 人 豌豆 酿酒酵母 大肠杆菌
域；总界 domain;
superkingdom 真核域
Eukarya 真核域
Eukarya 真核域
Eukarya 真核域
Eukarya 细菌域
Bacteria
界 kingdom regnum, regna 动物界
Animalia 动物界
Animalia 植物界
Plantae 真菌界
Fungi
门 division;
phylum divisio, divisiones;
phylum, phyla 节肢动物门
Arthropoda 脊索动物门
Chordata 种子植物门
Spermatophyta 子囊菌门
Ascomycota 变形菌门
Proteobacteria
亚门 subdivision;
subphylum subdivisio, subdivisiones;
subphylum, subphyla 六足亚门
Hexapoda 脊椎动物亚门
Vertebrata 被子植物亚门
Angiospermae
纲 class classis, classes 昆虫纲
Insecta 哺乳纲
Mammalia 双子叶植物纲
Dicotyledoneae 酵母纲
Saccharomycetes γ-变形菌纲
Gammaproteobacteria
亚纲 subclass subclassis, subclasses 新翅亚纲
Neoptera 真兽亚纲
Eutheria 蔷薇亚纲
Rosidae
目 order ordo, ordines 双翅目
Diptera 灵长目
Primates 豆目
Fabales 酵母目
Saccharomycetales 肠杆菌目
Enterobacteriales
亚目 suborder subordo, subordines 短角亚目
Brachycera 简鼻亚目
Haplorrhini
科 family familia, familiae 果蝇科
Drosophilidae 人科
Hominidae 蝶形花科
Papilionaceae 酵母科
Saccharomycetaceae 肠杆菌科
Enterobacteriaceae
亚科 subfamily subfamilia, subfamiliae 果蝇亚科
Drosophilinae 人亚科
Homininae
属 genus genus, genera 果蝇属
Drosophila 人属
Homo 豌豆属
Pisum 酵母属
Saccharomyces 埃希氏菌属
Escherichia
种 species species, species 黑腹果蝇
D. melanogaster 智人
H. sapiens 豌豆
P. sativum 酿酒酵母
S. cerevisiae 大肠杆菌
E. coli

注：

* 表中很多分类尚有分歧，除细菌参照伯杰氏手册的分类大纲外，其余按照传统分类，未有统一标准，谨作参考。
* 植物学和微生物学家用系统方法对较高级的分类单元命名，即用拉丁文中模式属（英文type genus）属名的词干加上标准的词尾来命名这个单元（见下表）。例如，蔷薇科的“科长”（即模式属）是蔷薇属(Rosa)，其词干为“Ros-”，则蔷薇科的拉丁名即为“Ros-”加上植物的科的后缀“-aceae”成为“Rosaceae”。中文的大多数分类单元也是类似用法，但：
1. 中文所用为高级单元的取名的属可能和拉丁文不同，如牻牛儿苗科(Geraniaceae)的中文名来源于牻牛儿苗属(Erodium)，但其拉丁名来源于老鹳草属(Geranium)。
2. 拉丁名变更后中文名不一定变更。如唇形科拉丁名原根据形态命名为Labiatae，现根据标准改为Lamiaceae，取名源自野芝麻属(Lamium)，中文也不必将唇形科改译作“野芝麻科”。
* 动物学家通常只将类似命名法命名至科（包括总科）这一级，以上则多用描述法。
* 为了更细致的分类，学者们在门、纲、目、科、属、种之外加了很多附属级别。最常用的是“亚-”(sub-)，在正常级别之下，如“亚纲”、“亚科”等等。在正常级别之上则为“总-”(super-)，如“总目”。比“亚”更小的还有“下-”，或译作“次-”(infra-)。但下目仍然要比总科大。此外，对于植物，在科和属之间还有“族”(拉tribus, tribi，英tribe)，属之下还有“组”(拉sectio, sectiones，英section)，再往下还能有“系”(拉、英series, series)。比较完整的种之上的分类单元的次序为（尽管目前大概没有能把这些等级都用全的分类系统）：

域(总界) - 界 - 门 - 亚门 - 总纲 - 纲 - 亚纲 - 下纲 - 总目 - 目 - 亚目 - 下目 - 总科 - 科 - 亚科 - 族 - 亚族 - 属 - 亚属 - 组 - 亚组 - 系 - 亚系 - 种

* 在种之下，动植物还能分成“亚种”(subspecies，简写subsp.)和“变种”(拉varietas, varietates，英variety，简写var.)，植物还能加上栽培种名。比如现代智人的学名为Homo sapiens subsp. sapiens，或者也可以直接省掉亚种简写直接写成Homo sapiens sapiens。一种豌豆的变种的栽培种可写成Pisum sativum var. macrocarpon 'Snowbird'。对于细菌和古菌，在种之下则用“株”(英strain)，如一株可以引起食物中毒的大肠杆菌菌株Escherichia coli O157:H7。注意只有属之下的单位（包括亚种、变种）名用斜体，而属级之上的单位、级别缩写、栽培种名和菌株名用正体。
o 注意：中文中任何分类单元不使用斜体。

[编辑]

分类名称后缀

在属以上级别的分类单元的拉丁文名称通常由模式属的词干加上一个标准的后缀所构成。后缀的选择取决于分类单元传统上所在的大类别，如下表所示：
分类单元 植物 藻类 真菌 原核生物 动物
门 -phyta -phyta -mycota
亚门 -phytina -phytina -mycotina
纲 -opsida -phyceae -mycetes
亚纲 -idae -phycidae -mycetidae
总目 -anae
目 -ales
亚目 -ineae
下目 -aria
总科 -acea -oidea
科 -aceae -idae
亚科 -oideae -inae
族 -eae -ini
亚族 -inae -ina

注意：

* 拉丁文的词干可能并不能从主格的词直接推断出来，比如Homo（人属）的词根为homin-，而非hom-，因此人科不是Homidae而是Hominidae。
* 对于动物，标准的词尾只上推到总目（《国际动物命名法规》(ICZN)中的27.2）。
* 对于原核生物，标准词尾上推到目（目前总目等级没有应用），词尾同植物、藻类、真菌。

[编辑]

参见

* 生物分类学
* 科学分类
* 双名法
* 三名法
* 林奈氏分类系统
* 国际植物命名法规
* 国际动物命名法规
* 国际细菌命名法规
* 国际病毒命名和分类法规
* 生物分类总表
* 系统发生树

[编辑]

外部链接

* PhyloCode（英文）
* NCBI分类（英文）
* 国际动物命名法规（英文）
* 国际植物命名法规，2000年圣路易斯（英文）
* 《细菌名称》

取自"http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%88%86%E9%A1%9E%E6%B3%95"

页面分类: 生物分类学 | 知识

⑹ 翻译英语词组，根据好坏给分

1.show it to :把它拿给...看看。
eg：I think you should show it to Mr. Carlson.
我觉得你应该给Carlson先生看看。

2.so on ：等等。
eg：This shop sells clothes, shoes, hats and so on.
这商店卖衣服, 鞋, 帽子等等。

3.something wrong with ：有毛病对于(不对头)，出了毛病/ 有问题
eg：There is something wrong with the car.
这车有点毛病。

4.shout to ：对……大声叫嚷／大声喊
eg：What did Ben shout to Susan?
本对苏珊喊什么？

5.nothing wrong ：没有错，没毛病
eg：There's nothing wrong wjth me.
我精神很好.

6.so good as ：务必
eg： Be so good As to come and join us.
务请来参加我们的活动。
（not so good as :不如。
eg：It is not so good as I thought.
它没有我想的那么好。）

7.trying to neigh ：努力地嘶吼
trying to：试图去做，neigh：马嘶

8.just looking
《纯情的偷窥》(JUST LOOKING)说的就是这样一个故事,直率、温馨、感人而又充满喜剧色彩,是一部性启蒙教育片,不可多得的佳作,可观性、娱乐性极强。
eg： 1. No, thanks, I ‘m just looking.
不，谢谢。我只是看看。
2. I'm just looking for a friend.
我只是找一个朋友。
3. They're just looking after you.
他们只是关心你。

9.not sure ：表不确定
eg：I'm not sure I agree with you.
我不能肯定我同意你的意见。

10.over here ：在那边
eg：The post office is over there.
邮局在那一边.

11.ooooh ：噢
ooooh like fire..
像火焰般温暖（歌曲：big big world中的歌词）
eg：1.Ooooh, she gets tough.
唔，她变得厉害了。
2.I have Ur arms around me ooooh like fire.
我原来是躺在你如火炉般温暖的怀抱里的。

12.a little big ：一点(少许,略微,稍)大
eg：The dimension of ring appears a little big
戒指的尺寸似乎有些大。

13.fitting room 装配车间；成型车间；试衣室
eg：The fitting room is over there.
试衣间在那儿.

14.a little later ：晚一点
eg: Can we make it a little later?
我们可以晚些时间约会吗?

15.not too bad:没什么大碍;不太严重；(口语）还不错，还可以，还好；相当好；不太坏；还过得去
eg:Not too bad. How about yourself?
还可以。你怎么样？

16.pay with cash :用现金付账
17.tax
n.
1. 税；税款2.[美国英语](社会、团体等的)会费3. 负担，压力；义务，职责
vt.
1. 对…征税；对…抽税：

18.a little more time ：多一点时间
eg：But we need just a little more time.
请再多给我们一点点时间。

19.all kinds of ：各种各样的，充足的，大量的。
eg：The river teems with all kinds of fish in summer.
夏天这条河里各种各样的鱼多得很。

20.kind to ：对...友好/和善/仁慈

21.for a while ：暂时，一会儿
eg：Stop here for a while, please.
暂停一会儿。

22.plan
n. 计划,策略,方法
v. 计划,设计,意欲