牛假狂犬病英語怎麼說及英文翻譯

『壹』 急需一篇關於醫學檢驗方面的專業醫語的文章和中文翻譯

Immunology is the graate student object resist original material immunity should answer and its method of living creature- medical science science.Immunity should the answer is the reaction that the machine body resists the original incitement, also is resist the original material to carry on identifying and expeling of a kind of biology process.
As early as more than 1000 year agos, the people discovered the immunity phenomenon, and develop the immunity prevention toward the infectious disease from here.The Chinese invented to use the person first the 痘痂 skin inoculates with the prevention smallpox, and at 15 centuries in the in the late Ming Dynasty 隆 celebrates the year have to compare to improve greatly, and get the extensive application.Afterwards, this great invention spreads Japan North Korea, Russia, Turkey and many nations of British etc..Empress British doctor the piano 納 studies to use the method that the cowpox germ prevent°froms the smallpox on these grounds, developping the vast foreground to the prevention of the infectious disease for the immunology.The whole world ability exterminates the smallpox in the end of 70's in 20 centuries, connecting to get smallpox vaccination the germ to develop the huge function.

End of 19 centuries, the French chemist, the microbiology a 巴斯 is virtuous in study the person and the infectious disease of the animal, analyzed the immunity phenomenon.Combine to inspire in the piano 納 under, he invents to use to rece the poisonous anthrax rod bacteria seedling stub to make into the vaccine, the anthrax disease of the prevention animal;Use to rece the poisonous stub of poisonous rabies to make into the vaccine, prevent°from the mankind's rabies.

A zoologist of 著 plum 契 尼 section man is after long-term research insect gobble up the phenomenon of the foreign body with the animal cell, pointing out the white cell and liver, the 脾 organizations in the bodies in 1883 in of gobble up the cell to have to gobble up and digest the ability of the germs.German bacteriology house, immunology house shell the wood discovers that the immunity has the antitoxin of the anti- diphtheria toxin in the serum in 1890, Japanese bacteriology house north in firewood three the 郎s also discover the anti- tetanus infection the antitoxin of the toxin, two people common research serum therapy success, to the treatment diphtheria and tetanus infection the sufferer obtains the good result.

From now on, the people start inquiry into the immunity mechanism, seeing the neutralization that the cell gobbles up the function and antitoxin is the basis of the particularity immunity, and open the exhibition cell immunity and the body fluid immunity two universitieses to send graally of contend for the 鳴 .

The leader of the cell immunity school of thought is the plum 契 尼 section man, the leader of the body fluid immunity school of thought is a 埃 of German bacteriology 爾 benefit rare.The benefit of 埃爾 is rare to use the biochemistry method research immunity phenomenon, being the foundation with the protein chemistry and the sugar chemistry especially, the study antigen and essence and its interactions of the antibody, put forward the side chain theory of the antibody formation in 1896, this ory is down to date to still have the actual meaning.Two universities send of contend for 鳴's promoting immunology develop.

To the 60's in 20 centuries, have already attained the level of the molecular biology to the research of the body fluid immunity, have already made the member structure and functions of the pure antibody.At the same time, also made the obvious progress to the research of the cell immunity, think that the small lymphoid cell is to be placed in the decrepitude in the past eventually in last phase, but already affirmative it is the lymphoid cell that a major type of the immune system has the immunity activity now, rising to emphasize to want the function in develop the immunity function.

Henceforth the people further clarified the structure of the small lymphoid cell, and the occurrence of the indivial and divide the process, especially at miscellaneous handed over the lump technique to obtain the achievement of the breakthrough, this not only enriched the knowledge of the general cytology, and for acquire the single gram 隆 antibody or lay the quality material to develop a new road.

Many scholars still notice:When the cause microorganism invade, the machine body can acquire the particularity immunity on the other hand, on the other hand also will appear the machine body immunity to injure.Since the late hair style that a section of German bacteriology 赫 research tubercle rod bacteria cause changed the reaction of 態 , the people discover graally not only germs and its outcomes can cause the machine body immunity to injure, connect the different race serum egg white even many easy chemistry materials enter the machine body again, also will make the machine body the organization encounters the breakage.

Middle of 20 centuries, transplant along with the organization organ of open the exhibition, to transplant the thing to reject, the immunity bear to is repress by sex, immunity, immunity blemish, oneself immunity, the tumor immunity etc. carried on the thorough research, the important meaning that know that the thymus gland, the method surname bag and spleens are in the machine body immunity function, know past the unilateral that the immunity process limits at the anti- infection immunity, also know immunity should answer is since can defendoof infect and protect the machine body and can result in immunity injure and cause a biology process of paroxysm again.Also is to say, immunity is the living creature body to everything not the personal member carries on identify with expel of process, is to maintain a physiology of machine to respond, is the machine body identifies by one's own of a kind of widespread biology phenomenon.

The modern immunology think that the immunity function of the machine body is to resist the original incitement of should answer, but immunity should the answer express again identifies the oneself and expels for the immune system not personal of ability.The immunity function identifies to proce result according to the immunity.This kind of function has mostly:Outward the immunity defense of the source foreign body( is mainly the contagion factor);Do away with the immunity of decline or hurt cell, to keep the oneself stability;Cancellation mutation the immunity surveillance of the cell.

Only the immune system develops the homologous function and keeps the opposite balance under the condition of normal, the machine body then can maintain the existence.If the immunity function take place unusually, by all means cause the machine body balance maladjustment, appear the immunity pathology variety.

The immune system identifies in the process of exertive immunity function is an important premise.The whole living creatures all have this kind of ability.The unicellular living creature has the food of distinguish, invades the microorganism only and oneself the cell composition etc. the low class identifies the function.The machine body immune system of the vertebrates is graally perfect, not only having the immunity organ anding the immunity cells of the integrity, and living cell of immunity canning but also procing the particularity antibody and the factor of 琳巴s, identifying the oneself thus and accurately, expeling the foreign body to attain the machine body inside the opposite stability of the environment, this all has the great significance towards protecting the oneself and continuing the race and living creatures evolutions.Full development of the immune system of high etc. living creature, it to inside various antigen foreign body of the outside environment stimulate since express a diverse sex and adaptabilities, and then express a particularity and recall sex, this to living creature of evolution process, living creature grow the existence and orientations of the department to have the important influence.

New China was established, the immunology has already very greatly have to make progress in the application on the medical science.The living creature of the prevention and cure infectious disease procts to not only satisfy the local demand, but also support a little bit other nations.The new vaccine,such as chemistry vaccine, B a hepatitis vaccine...etc., that recent years research to manufacture, have already neared to advanced level in world.China has already exterminated the smallpox, and exterminate and control the human life plague and true sex choleras basically, waiting the violent infectious disease.The spinal cord ash quality 炎 , measles, diphtheria, whooping cough, tetanus infection...etc. outbreak rate of the familiar infectious disease has already lowered consumedly.

The modern immunology develops the theories system of become the current oneself graally and has independent course of special research method again.It provided some new meanses for the research of the biology.

As early as the beginning of 20 centuries, the people have already made use of the immunology to distinguish analyse the mankind's blood type.The plant classification learn very early application the method of the immunology.Also adopted the immunology technique while study the toxin of the plant and animal.For example,1889-1890 years, the people studies the diphtheria toxin and the tetanus infection toxins with the immunology technique, using it again later on to study the plant toxin, such as the castor toxin, the croton toxin and snake poison, spider poison within the animal toxins.Moreover, the people make use of to precipitate to respond to discriminate the blood stain of the animal early very much.Some new techniques that recent years develop, such as project the immunity, the immunity fluorescence and the 酶 immunity etc., all provided the practical research means for the biology.

Say from the substance, modern immunology however is a branch of the living creature- medical science.But, along with the technical development of science, it sends to living a many independent branch course again, for example, with the modern biology germane member immunology, the immunity biology and the immunity geneticses, learn with germane immunity hematology, the immunity pharmacology of medical science, immunity pathology, grow the immunology and transplant the immunology, tumor immunology, anti- infection immunology, clinical immunology etc..

Now, have already attained the cell level and the member levels to the research of the immunology, the people are work hard the basic physiology regulation of the study living creature- immunity of oneself stability mechanism.Many important problems within medical science, respond such as the oneself immunity, super 敏 , tumor immunity, transplant the immunity, the immunity heredity...etc., will get necessarily better resolve.

免疫學是研究生物體對抗原物質免疫應答性及其方法的生物-醫學科學。免疫應答是機體對抗原刺激的反應，也是對抗原物質進行識別和排除的一種生物學過程。
早在1000多年前，人們就發現了免疫現象，並由此發展起來對傳染病的免疫預防。中國人首先發明了用人痘痂皮接種以預防天花，並且在十五世紀中後期的明朝隆慶年間有較大改進，並得到廣泛的應用。後來，這一偉大發明傳播到日本朝鮮、俄國、土耳其和英國等許多國家。後英國醫生琴納據此研究出用牛痘菌預防天花的方法，為免疫學對傳染病的預防開辟了廣闊的前景。全世界能在20世紀70年代末消滅天花，接種牛痘菌發揮了巨大作用。

19世紀末，法國化學家、微生物學家巴斯德於研究人和動物的傳染病時，分析了免疫現象。並在琴納的啟發下，他發明用減毒炭疽桿菌苗株製成疫苗，預防動物的炭疽病；用減毒狂犬病毒株製成疫苗，預防人類的狂犬病。

著名動物學家梅契尼科夫在長期研究昆蟲和動物細胞吞噬異物的現象後，於1883年指出體內的白細胞和肝、脾組織中的吞噬細胞具有吞噬和消化細菌的能力。德國細菌學家、免疫學家貝林於1890年發現免疫血清中有抗白喉毒素的抗毒素存在，日本細菌學家北里柴三郎也發現抗破傷風毒素的抗毒素，兩人共同研究血清療法成功，對治療白喉和破傷風患者取得良好效果。

從此，人們開始探討免疫機制，把細胞的吞噬作用和抗毒素的中和作用看成是特異性免疫的根據，並逐步開展細胞免疫和體液免疫兩大學派的爭鳴。

細胞免疫學派的首領是梅契尼科夫，體液免疫學派的首領是德國細菌學家埃爾利希。埃爾利希用生物化學方法研究免疫現象，特別是以蛋白質化學和糖化學作為基礎，探討抗原和抗體的本質及其相互作用，於1896年提出抗體形成的側鏈學說，這一學說直到今天還具有實際意義。兩大學派的爭鳴促進了免疫學的發展。

到20世紀60年代，對體液免疫的研究已經達到分子生物學的水平，已經弄清抗體的分子結構和功能。同時，對細胞免疫的研究也取得了明顯的進展，過去認為小淋巴細胞是處於衰老終末期，而現在已肯定它是免疫系統的一大類具有免疫活性的淋巴細胞，在發揮免疫功能中起著重要作用。

此後人們進一步闡明了小淋巴細胞的結構，以及個體的發生和分化過程，特別是在雜交瘤技術方面取得了突破性的成就，這不僅豐富了一般細胞學的知識，而且為獲得單克隆抗體或介質物質開辟了一條新的道路。

許多學者還注意到：當病原微生物入侵的時候，機體一方面能夠獲得特異性免疫，另一方面也會出現機體免疫損害。自從德國細菌學家科赫研究結核桿菌所引起的遲發型變態反應以來，人們逐步發現不僅細菌及其產物可以引起機體免疫損害，就連異種血清蛋白甚至許多很簡單的化學物質再次進入機體，也會使機體組織遭到破壞。

20世紀中期，隨著組織器官移植的開展，對移植物排斥、免疫耐受性、免疫抑制、免疫缺陷、自身免疫、腫瘤免疫等進行了深入的研究，認識到胸腺、法氏囊和脾臟在機體免疫功能中的重要意義，認識到過去把免疫過程局限於抗傳染免疫的片面性，也認識到免疫應答是既可防禦傳染和保護機體、又可造成免疫損害和引起疾病的一個生物學過程。也就是說，免疫是生物體對一切非己分子進行識別與排除的過程，是維持機體相對穩定的一種生理反應，是機體自我識別的一種普遍生物學現象。

現代免疫學認為，機體的免疫功能是對抗原刺激的應答，而免疫應答又表現為免疫系統識別自己和排除非己的能力。免疫功能根據免疫識別發揮作用。這種功能大致有：對外源性異物(主要是傳染性因子)的免疫防禦；去除衰退或損傷細胞的免疫，以保持自身穩定；消除突變細胞的免疫監視。

只有免疫系統在正常條件下發揮相應的作用和保持相對的平衡，機體才能維持生存。如果免疫功能發生異常，必然導致機體平衡失調，出現免疫病理變化。

免疫系統在發揮免疫功能的過程中，識別是個重要的前提。一切生物都具有這種能力。單細胞生物只具有分辨食物、入侵微生物和本身細胞成分等低級的識別功能。脊椎動物的機體免疫系統逐漸完善，不僅具有完整的免疫器官和免疫細胞，而且免疫活性細胞還能產生特異性抗體和琳巴因子，從而准確地識別自己，排除異物以達到機體內環境的相對穩定，這對保護自己、延續種族和生物進化都有重大意義。高等生物的免疫系統充分發展，它對內外環境的各種抗原異物刺激既表現出多樣性和適應性，又表現出特異性和回憶性，這對生物的進化過程、生物種系的生存和適應具有重大影響。

新中國成立以來，免疫學在醫學上的應用已經有了很大進展。防治傳染病的生物製品不僅滿足國內的需要，而且支援其他一些國家。近年研製的新疫苗如化學疫苗、乙型肝炎疫苗等，已經接近世界先進水平。中國已經消滅天花，並且基本上消滅和控制了人間鼠疫和真性霍亂，等烈性傳染病。脊髓灰質炎、麻疹、白喉、百日咳、破傷風等常見傳染病的發病率已經大大降低。

現代免疫學逐步發展成為既有自身的理論體系、又有特殊研究方法的獨立學科。它為生物學的研究提供了一些新的手段。

早在20世紀初，人們已經利用免疫學來區分人類的血型。植物分類學很早就應用免疫學的方法。在研究植物和動物的毒素時也採用了免疫學技術。例如，1889～1890年，人們用免疫學技術研究白喉毒素和破傷風毒素，隨後又用它來研究植物毒素，如蓖麻毒素、巴豆毒素和動物毒素中的蛇毒、蜘蛛毒。另外，人們很早就利用沉澱反應鑒別動物的血跡。近年發展起來的一些新技術，如放射免疫、免疫熒光和酶免疫等，都為生物學提供了實用的研究手段。

從實質上說，現代免疫學不過是生物-醫學的一個分支。但是，隨著科學技術的發展，它本身又派生出許多獨立的分支學科，例如，與現代生物學有密切關系的分子免疫學、免疫生物學和免疫遺傳學，與醫學有密切關系的免疫血液學、免疫葯理學、免疫病理學、生殖免疫學、移植免疫學、腫瘤免疫學、抗感染免疫學、臨床免疫學等。

現在，對免疫學的研究已經達到細胞水平和分子水平，人們正在努力探討生物的基本生理規律——免疫的自身穩定機制。醫學中的許多重要問題，如自身免疫、超敏反應、腫瘤免疫、移植免疫、免疫遺傳等，必將得到更好的解決。

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屍檢和弦樂
安尼塔·昆茨
是什麼最終導致了莫扎特的早逝？他死了數百年後，在馬里蘭州召開了一次不同尋常的臨床病理學會議，以診斷這位天才的死因，會上，費思· 菲茨傑拉德教授提出了其獨到的診斷意見。這次會議如何不同尋常？菲茨傑拉德教授又是如何進行屍檢的？下面的文章將會澄清這些疑團。

在馬里蘭州立大學戴威基大廳里的磚鋪地面上，一位著名的醫學教授正准備進行一次最為不同尋常的屍檢。雖然兩百多年來，這座前後座椅間坡度很大的帶圓頂的圓形劇場舉辦了各種醫學講座及演示，今天提供的 內容卻不同一般，因為根本見不到死者的遺體。屍解結束時，一個弦樂四重奏樂隊將奉獻十八世紀的音樂節目。這兒正在舉行的是該校第六次歷史臨床病理學年會。每年，該大學的醫學院會邀請一位醫生就一些歷史人物——從艾德加·愛倫·坡到亞歷山大大帝——所患的神秘疾病作出診斷。今年的病人是一位三十五歲的男性，患病兩周後死於維也納。他的遺體被安葬在一個普通的墓地里，但他那才華橫溢的音樂至今仍在世界各地的音樂廳中回盪。
費思·菲茨傑拉德是內科醫生，加利福尼亞大學戴維斯醫學院教授。她首先提出：「當一些傑出人物死於普通疾病時，我們就會感到不安。」她的開場白給那些急於解釋隨後的研究的人提了個醒。當事人當時正處於創作的顛峰期，且那一陣健康狀況很好，突然一病不起，發高燒、頭疼、盜汗、手腳浮腫。幾天之內，浮腫就擴散到了身體各處——也就是我們所說的全身性水腫。這位受害者卧病在床，胸部和腹部還出了疹子。病了一周時間之後，他訴說全身疼痛，遭受了陣陣嘔吐和痢疾的折磨。他神智仍一直清醒和警覺，但到1791年12月4日晚，出現譫妄症狀，陷入昏迷，午夜過後便病逝。
費思·菲茨傑拉德解釋說，圍繞著這一特殊病歷的爭議，是因為死者名人身份：沃爾夫岡·阿馬戴烏斯·莫扎特的去世「一點兒都不會神秘至今，如果那個十二月的晚上死去的是沃爾夫岡·阿馬戴烏斯·穆勒的話。」此後，被名人效應左右的醫生們歸結了一百多種使莫扎特死亡的病因。菲茨傑拉德指出，「這些[診斷]的每一種，爭論時的熱情要遠大於對數據的關注。」「當然，莫扎特死於梅毒，死因怎麼說都行——因為每個偉人都死於梅毒。」
曾給生病的作曲家看病的醫生們同樣也幫不上什麼忙。他們的救助方法就是放血或用冷敷布降溫。當時沒有對屍體進行屍檢。康奈爾大學音樂理論家尼爾·扎斯羅簡述了莫扎特生平，據他所說，莫扎特死亡與安葬時，兩座教堂載明的死因都是「嚴重的粟疹熱」，在當時這是對出現籽狀疹癥候群的一種通用描述。報紙上登載的關於其死亡的診斷則有聲有色，不懷好意，認為是一種有毒的性病，還有心臟浮腫——這在十八世紀用來指體液瀦留及嚴重水腫。

甚至一些在莫扎特小時侯給他檢查過身體、頗有學識的人士，對他最終的死因也形成自己的看法。扎斯羅說，「他們認為，每個個體生來就存儲有限的生命要素，當這種生命要素以他們認為的在年輕的莫扎特體內的強度消耗時，這種要素就可能提前耗盡，導致早逝。」

就這樣，過多的想像以及時間的流逝，使悲劇演變成一個亟待解決的醫學之謎。對於該醫學院副院長菲利普·邁考威艾克來說，這正是他所感興趣的材料。六年前，他在一本馬里蘭州的歷史雜志上讀到一篇關於艾德加·愛倫·坡臨終情況的敘述，然後便發起組織了這個會議。他雇了一個演員扮演坡，還邀請他的同事邁克爾·本尼特斯重新審查這位作家的病史。 用選自坡所著的故事《黑貓》中的一段獨白，恰如其分地最終得出診斷結果：死於狂犬病。死於狂犬病的說法吸引了相當多的注意力，以致成為電視益智問答節目《危險》中的一個問題。

從那以後，參加會議的人探討過亞歷山大大帝、貝多芬以及雅典軍事和政治領袖培里克利斯的死因。到目前為止，邁考威艾克的醫學同行們所作出的診斷 ，要是不算平庸的話 ，也是比較常見的——這使得會議不僅有趣，而且對於與會的受訓醫生來說也很實用。醫學博士保羅·薩赫戴夫正在傳染病研究領域接受最後一年培訓，他說，給歷史人物會診過程中體現一種 徹底性，而當前臨床實踐有時就缺乏這一點。「一旦你過了見習期及住院實習期，你就容易不假思索地作出一些診斷，而不仔細考慮所有的可能性。」

薩赫戴夫說，通過沒有現代科技幫助的一個病例考察另一種醫療工作，也具有啟發性。在莫扎特這個例子中，最顯著的病症——全身水腫一般有三個成因：肝臟疾病、腎臟疾病以及充血性心力衰竭。沒有現代的實驗技術，菲茨傑拉德必須運用演繹推理。她第一步是排除肝臟疾病，因為並沒有出現黃疸症狀。
一些醫學史家曾暗示是腎臟疾病，因為莫扎特的耳朵有些畸形。耳朵和腎臟幾乎在人類胚胎階段同時發育；因此，畸形的耳朵也可以表明腎臟有問題。但是菲茨傑拉德說，莫扎特並沒有腎臟機能不良的病史。而且，嚴重的腎臟病在發病過程中產生譫妄症狀時間要早。

因此，最後菲茨傑拉德轉向了充血性心力衰竭。如果心臟不能泵壓足夠的血液通過腎臟以排出存在於體液中的鹽分，也可能會導致全身水腫。用戴威基大廳配備的聽診器，在場的任何一位聽眾都會很容易確診心臟疾病。「不幸的是，」菲茨傑拉德說，「在莫扎特死後二十五六年 才發明聽診檢查。而且也沒有記錄表明，他的醫生曾經把耳朵貼在胸部聽心跳。如果我真得面對一個出疹、發燒、盜汗、浮腫的傢伙，我大概也不會想要把耳朵靠在他的胸部。」
但是，菲茨傑拉德注意到，據說在莫扎特去世時，維也納正遭受一場流行性風濕熱的侵擾。風濕熱的形成是由於某種細菌入侵誘發免疫系統產生抗體。抗體襲擊細菌，但它們也可能會襲擊體質虛弱的寄主的心臟、皮膚、關節和大腦。菲茨傑拉德指出，這種反會引發產生在莫扎特身上的其它病症，也會導致充血性心力衰竭。風濕熱對神經系統造成的後果舞蹈病，可以用來解釋莫扎特臨終時的譫妄症狀，也可以解釋其令人困惑的性格變化——在去世前幾天， 這種變化導致他把自己最寵愛的金絲雀從病房中趕了出去。

她說：「人們可以說那場流行病對他的死因並不重要，那隻是巧合而已。但我認為，要是對此不加以考慮，則有些自大。」菲茨傑拉德運用奧卡姆剃刀原則——即對某一現象最簡單的解釋可能性最大——作出了診斷：由風濕熱引起的充血性心力衰竭。
聽眾們顯得平靜，而且深感滿意，就好象沉浸在對一位亡友的頌揚之中。人們分發著三明治，弦樂四重奏樂隊正在做演出准備，當第一個音符奏響的時候，沃爾夫岡·阿馬戴烏斯·莫扎特又重獲生命。

希望能幫到您。
望採納，謝謝！